Chapter 15. Camouflage, Techniques, and Materials


Chapter 15. Camouflage Techniques, Materials Chapter 15. Camouflage Techniques and Materials TECHNIQUES CCD is an essential part of tactical operations. It must be integrated into METT-TC analyses and the IPB process at all echelons. CCD is a primary consideration when planning OPSEC. The skillful use of CCD techniques is necessary if a unit is to conceal itself and survive. A general knowledge of CCD methods and techniques also allows friendly troops to recognize CCD better when the enemy uses it. The CCD Techniques Table lists the five general techniques of employing CCD—hiding, blending, disguising, disrupting, and decoying. CCD Techniques Table CCD Techniques Sensor Systems Optical Thermal Radar Hiding Earth cover Earth embankments Vegetation LCSS Screens Smoke Earth cover Earth embankments Vegetation LCSS Screens Smoke Chaff Earth cover Earth embankments Vegetation Nets RAM LCSS Blending Paint Foam Lights Vegetation LCSS Textured mats Thermal paint Foam Air conditioning/heating Vegetation LCSS Textured mats Water Insulation Vegetation LCSS RAM Reshaping Textured mats Disguising Reshaping Paint LCSS Reshaping Paint Corner reflectors Disrupting Camouflage sails FOS Pyrotechnics Smudge pots Balloons Strobe lights Tracer simulators Smoke Flares Smoke Chaff Corner reflectors Decoying Decoy target (pneumatic or rigid structures) Lights Smoke Decoy target Flares Air conditioning/heating Smoke Decoy target Corner reflectors Signal generators HIDING Hiding is screening a target from an enemy's sensors. The target is undetected because a barrier hides it from a sensor's view. Every effort should be made to hide all operations; this includes using conditions of limited visibility for movement and terrain masking. Examples of hiding include—  Burying mines.  Placing vehicles beneath tree canopies.  Placing equipment in defilade positions.  Covering vehicles and equipment with nets.  Hiding roads and obstacles with linear screens.  Using battlefield obscurants, such as smoke. BLENDING Blending is trying to alter a target's appearance so that it becomes a part of the background. Generally, it is arranging or applying camouflage material on, over, and/or around a target to reduce its contrast with the background. Characteristics to consider when blending include the terrain patterns in the vicinity and the target's size, shape, texture, color, EM signature, and background. DISGUISING Disguising is applying materials on a target to mislead the enemy as to its true identity. Disguising changes a target's appearance so that it resembles something of lesser or greater significance. For example, a missile launcher might be disguised to resemble a cargo truck or a large building might be disguised to resemble two small buildings. DISRUPTING Disrupting is altering or eliminating regular patterns and target characteristics. Disrupting techniques include pattern painting, deploying camouflage nets over selected portions of a target, and using shape disrupters (such as camouflage sails) to eliminate regular target patterns. DECOYING Decoying is deploying a false or simulated target(s) within a target's scene or in a position where the enemy might conclude that it has found the correct target(s). Decoys generally draw fire away from real targets. Depending on their fidelity and deployment, decoys will greatly enhance survivability. TESTS AND EVALUATIONS Until recently, the effectiveness of CCD techniques had not been scientifically quantified. As such, CCD was not widely accepted in the US military as an effective means of increasing survivability. However, the Joint Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception (JCCD) Joint Test and Evaluation (JT&E) completed in 1995 measured the effectiveness of CCD against manned aerial attacks. It provided military services the basis for guidance on CCD-related issues. JCCD field tests were conducted in multiple target environments using a broad cross section of US attack aircraft flying against different classes of military targets. In controlled attack sorties, targets were attacked before and after employing CCD techniques. The presence of CCD greatly reduced correct target attacks, particularly when decoys were employed as part of the CCD plan. Other JCCD findings included the following:  CCD significantly increased aircrew aim-point error.  CCD increased the target's probability of survival.  Each CCD technique (hiding, blending, disguising, disrupting, and decoying) was effective to some degree in increasing the probability of survival.  CCD was effective in all tested environments (desert, temperate, and subarctic). NATURAL CONDITIONS Properly using terrain and weather is a first priority when employing CCD. Cover provided by the terrain and by conditions of limited visibility is often enough to conceal units. The effective use of natural conditions minimizes the resources and the time devoted to CCD. The terrain's concealment properties are determined by the number and quality of natural screens, terrain patterns, and the type and size of targets. FORESTS Forests generally provide the best type of natural screen against optical recon, especially if the crowns of the trees are wide enough to prevent aerial observation of the ground. Forests with undergrowth also hinder ground observation. Deciduous (leafing) forests are not as effective during the months when trees are bare, while coniferous (evergreen) forests preserve their concealment properties all year. When possible, unit movements should be made along roads and gaps that are covered by tree crowns. Shade should be used to conceal vehicles, equipment, and personnel from aerial observation. OPEN TERRAIN Limited visibility is an especially important concealment tool when conducting operations in open terrain. The threat, however, will conduct recon with a combination of night-surveillance devices, radar, IR sensors, and terrain illumination. When crossing open terrain during limited visibility, supplement concealment with smoke. DEAD SPACE Units should not locate or move along the topographic crests of hills or other locations where they are silhouetted against the sky. They should use reverse slopes of hills, ravines, embankments, and other terrain features as screens to avoid detection by ground-mounted sensors. IPB concealment and terrain overlays should identify areas of dead space. If overlays are not available, use the line-of-sight (LOS) method to identify areas of dead space. WEATHER Conditions of limited visibility (fog, rain, snowfall) hamper recon by optical sensors. Dense fog is impervious to visible sensors and some thermal sensors, making many threat night-surveillance devices unusable. Dense fog and clouds are impenetrable to thermal sensors (IR). Rain, snow, and other types of precipitation hinder optical, thermal, and radar sensors. SMOKE Smoke is an effective CCD tool when used by itself or with other CCD techniques. It can change the dynamics of a battle by blocking or degrading the spectral bands that an enemy's target-acquisition and weapons systems use, including optical and thermal bands. DATA SOURCES Commanders must be able to evaluate natural conditions in their area to effectively direct unit concealment. They must know the terrain and weather conditions before mission execution. In addition to IPB terrain overlays, weather reports, and topographic maps, commanders should use aerial photographs, recon, and information gathered from local inhabitants to determine the terrain's natural concealment properties. MATERIALS Using natural conditions and materials is the first CCD priority, but using man-made materials can greatly enhance CCD efforts. Available materials include pattern-painted equipment, camouflage nets (LCSS), radar-absorbing paint (RAP), radar-absorbing material (RAM), false operating surfaces (FOSs), vegetation, expedient paint, decoys, and battlefield by-products (construction materials, dirt). PATTERN PAINT Pattern-painted vehicles blend well with the background and can hide from optical sensors better than those painted a solid, subdued color. Pattern-painted equipment enhances antidetection by reducing shape, shadow, and color signatures. Improved paints also help avoid detection by reducing a target's reflectance levels in the visible and IR portions of the EM spectrum. The result is a vehicle or an item of equipment that blends better with its background when viewed by threat sensors. While a patterned paint scheme is most effective in static positions, it also tends to disrupt aim points on a moving target. CAMOUFLAGE NETS The LCSS is the standard Army camouflage net currently available. The LCSS reduces a vehicle's visual and radar signatures. Stainless steel fibers in the LCSS material absorb some of the radar signal and reflect most of the remaining signal in all directions. The result is a small percentage of signal return to the radar for detection. The radar-scattering capabilities of the LCSS are effective only if there is at least 2 feet of space between the LCSS and the camouflaged equipment and if the LCSS completely covers the equipment. Do not place a radar-scattering net over a radar antenna because it interferes with transmission. The LCSS is also available in a radar-transparent model. The three different LCSS color patterns are desert, woodland, and arctic. Each side of each LCSS has a slightly different pattern to allow for seasonal variations. The LCSS uses modular construction that allows the coverage of various sizes of equipment. VEGETATION Use branches and vines to temporarily conceal vehicles, equipment, and personnel. Attach vegetation to equipment with camouflage foliage brackets, spring clips, or expedient means (such as plastic tie-wraps). Use other foliage to complete the camouflage or to supplement natural-growing vegetation. Also use cut foliage to augment other artificial CCD materials, such as branches placed on an LCSS to break up its outline. Be careful when placing green vegetation since the underside of leaves presents a lighter tone in photographs. Replace cut foliage often because it wilts and changes color rapidly. During training exercises, ensure that cutting vegetation and foliage does not adversely effect the natural environment (coordinate with local authorities). LIVING VEGETATION Living vegetation can be obtained in most environments, and its color and texture make it a good blending agent. However, foliage requires careful maintenance to keep the material fresh and in good condition. If branches are not placed in their proper growing positions, they may reveal friendly positions to enemy observers. Cutting large amounts of branches can also reveal friendly positions, so cut all vegetation away from target areas. Living vegetation presents a chlorophyll response at certain NIR wavelengths. As cut vegetation wilts, it loses color and its NIR-blending properties, which are related to the chlorophyll response. Replace cut vegetation regularly because over time it becomes a detection cue rather than an effective concealment technique. DEAD VEGETATION Use dead vegetation (dried grass, hay, straw, branches) for texturing. It provides good blending qualities if the surrounding background vegetation is also dead. Dead vegetation is usually readily available and requires little maintenance; however, it is flammable. Due to the absence of chlorophyll response, dead vegetation offers little CCD against NIR sensors and hyperspectral sensors operating in the IR regions. FOLIAGE SELECTION When selecting foliage for CCD, consider the following:  Coniferous vegetation is preferred to deciduous vegetation since it maintains a valid chlorophyll response longer after being cut.  Foliage cut during periods of high humidity (at night, during a rainstorm, or when there is fog or heavy dew) will wilt more slowly.  Foliage with leaves that feel tough to the fingers and branches with large leaves are preferred because they stay fresher longer.  Branches that grow in direct sunlight are tougher and will stay fresher longer.  Branches that are free of disease and insects will not wilt as rapidly. CHLOROPHYLL RESPONSE Standard-issue camouflage materials (LCSS) are designed to exhibit an artificial chlorophyll response at selected NIR wavelengths. Nonstandard materials (sheets, tarps) are not likely to exhibit a chlorophyll response and will not blend well with standard CCD material or natural vegetation. Use nonstandard materials only as CCD treatments against visual threat sensors, not against NIR or hyperspectral threat sensors. EXPEDIENT PAINT CAUTION Expedient paint containing motor oil should be used with extreme caution. Use earth, sand, and gravel to change or add color, provide a coarse texture, simulate cleared spots or blast marks, and create shapes and shadows. Mud makes an excellent field expedient for toning down bright, shiny objects (glass, bayonets, watches). Add clay (in mud form) of various colors to crankcase oil to produce a field-expedient paint. Expedient Paints Table provides instructions on how to mix soil-based expedient paints. Use surface soils to mimic natural surface color and reflectivity. Expedient paints Paint Materials Mixing Color Finish Earth, GI soap, water, soot, paraffin Mix soot with paraffin, add to solution of 8 gal water and 2 bars soap, and stir in earth. Dark gray Flat, lusterless Oil, clay, water, gasoline, earth Mix 2 gal water with 1 gal oil and to gal clay, add earth, and thin with gasoline or water. Depends on earth colors Glossy on metal, otherwise dull Oil, clay, GI soap, water, earth Mix 1 bars soap with 3 gal water, add 1 gal oil, stir in 1 gal clay, and add earth for color. Depends on earth colors Glossy on metal, otherwise dull NOTE: Use canned milk or powdered eggs to increase the binding properties of field-expedient paints. RADAR-ABSORBING MATERIAL RAM was designed for placement on valuable military equipment. It absorbs radar signals that are transmitted in selected threat wave bands and reduces the perceived radar cross section (RCS) of the treated equipment. RAM is expensive relative to other CCD equipment and is not yet widely available. RAP offers the same RCS reduction benefits as RAM, and it is also expensive. BATTLEFIELD BY-PRODUCTS Battlefield by-products (construction materials, dirt) can be used to formulate expedient CCD countermeasures. For example, use plywood and two-by-fours to erect expedient target decoys or use dirt to construct concealment berms. DECOYS Decoys are among the most effective of all CCD tools. The proper use of decoys provides alternate targets against which an enemy will expend ammunition, possibly revealing its position in the process. Decoys also enhance friendly survivability and deceive an enemy about the number and location of friendly weapons, troops, and equipment. EMPLOYMENT RATIONALE Decoys are used to attract an enemy's attention for a variety of tactical purposes. Their main use is to draw enemy fire away from high-value targets (HVTs). Decoys are generally expendable, and they—  Can be elaborate or simple. Their design depends on several factors, such as the target to be decoyed, a unit's tactical situation, available resources, and the time available to a unit for CCD employment.  Can be preconstructed or made from field-expedient materials. Except for selected types, preconstructed decoys are not widely available (see Appendix E). A typical Army unit can construct effective, realistic decoys to rePLIcate its key equipment and features through imaginative planning and a working knowledge of the EM signatures emitted by the unit. Proper decoy employment serves a number of tactical purposes, to include—  Increasing the survivability of key unit equipment and personnel.  Deceiving the enemy about the strength, disposition, and intentions of friendly forces.  Replacing friendly equipment removed from the forward line of own troops (FLOT).  Drawing enemy fire, which reveals its positions.  Encouraging the enemy to expend munitions on relatively low-value targets (decoys). EMPLOYMENT CONSIDERATIONS The two most important factors regarding decoy employment are location and fidelity (realism):  Location. Logically placing decoys will greatly enhance their plausibility. Decoys are usually placed near enough to the real target to convince an enemy that it has found the target. However, a decoy must be far enough away to prevent collateral damage to the real target when the decoy draws enemy fire. Proper spacing between a decoy and a target depends on the size of the target, the expected enemy target-acquisition sensors, and the type of munitions directed against the target.  Fidelity. Decoys must be constructed according to a friendly unit's SOP and must include target features that an enemy recognizes. The most effective decoys are those that closely resemble the real target in terms of EM signatures. Completely rePLIcating the signatures of some targets, particularly large and complex targets, can be very difficult. Therefore, decoy construction should address the EM spectral region in which the real target is most vulnerable. The seven recognition factors that allow enemy sensors to detect a target are conversely important for decoys. When evaluating a decoy's fidelity, it should be recognizable in the same ways as the real target, only more so. Try to make the decoy slightly more conspicuous than the real target.